Thursday, January 17, 2008

Recently the writer was invited to attend seminars and give general lectures in three colleges in Trengganu city, Malaysia. There are interesting sights there, which are a lot of big writings placed in front of buildings of governmental offices reading DAULAT TUANKU. According to royal tradition there, the words “daulat tuanku” means readiness to execute commands of the king so that phrase is must be used by an official or minister when he is about to report to the king or in stating readiness to execute the king’s commands, like tradition in TNI (Indonesian military) to say “siap” (ready). At present modern time, the phrase “daulat tuanku” is a confirmation of a political system that political sovereignty in Malaysia is on the hands of the sultans. Malaysia is indeed a constitutional country (like UK and Nehtherlands) consisting of various sultanates in which a sultan is elected alternately among the sultans to be Yang Dipertuan Agong (King). Meanwhile, daily governmental activities are led by a prime minister elected through a democracy process.

Sovereignty (“kedaulatan”) comes from the Arabic “daulah” meaning power or turn in power. The word “Daulah Umayyah” and “Daulah Abassiyah” historically was used to refer to power of Umayyah and Abbasiyyah dynasties. At present, the word “daulah” is also used to refer “state”.

Three Kinds of Sovereignties
In connection with sovereignty as a power system, there are three areas of sovereignty: People’s Sovereignty, Law’s Sovereignty, and God’s Sovereignty (Divine Sovereignty). People sovereignty means that people hold power of the state, manifested through general elections in which people choose their representatives to hold various positions in the highest institution of the state (MPR or People Consultative Assembly in Indonesia) and in the pre-reform era the highest institution elected President to implement people power.

Furthermore, President is called the holder of the Assembly’s mandates. At present, people sovereignty is not given to the Assembly but directly given to the president through direct president election and to governors and regents through direct regional head elections (pilkada). This giving sovereignty directly may be positive or negative. On the positive side, the direct election eliminates manipulations previously happened through “cow-trading practices”. On the negative side, anarchies behaviors/movements often happen in the name of people. The idea of appointing governors through regional head elections proposed by Muladi (Lemhanas) is understood as an effort to reduce the excesses of direct people sovereignty that can weaken the authority. The more important thing here that we have government whose president is directly elected. The implementation of people sovereignty is merry, but the cost is very high, using up people’s energy. The Indonesian society indeed consists of various social strata: ultra modern, modern, urban, traditional, and backward peoples. People freedom may be such a boring thing for ultra modern people, but urban society is now preoccupied with enjoying the people sovereignty by means of freedom of choice.

Meanwhile, law’s sovereignty is also adopted because Indonesia is a law state. Law’s sovereignty means that it is law that should be the commander so that law must not be controlled by political interests; it is law that should control politics, not vice versa. In this respect, we should admit weakness of law sovereignty in our country, since law is not only often controlled by politics but even by dirty hands of corruptors. In Indonesia, there are a lot of newly interested things now. People Representation Board (DPR) makes constitution, government implements the constitution. The Constitution Court controls the constitution itself. The government is supervised by DPR and people as the holders of political sovereignty, government and DPR is supervised by law apparatuses as the law enforcers. All highest institutions are controlled and supervised, except the Constitution Court whose decisions are binding and isn’t controlled by any institution except itself. In this perspective, it is as if the Constitution Court holds God’s sovereignty.

God’s Sovereignty in Politics
Theologically, man can hold God sovereignty since man is His representative (khalifah). Man as a representative is not only given the right to manage nature, but he is entitled to reinforce God’s law on the earth for example giving killers death sentences. Every nation and social stratum has a different way of thinking in reinforcing God’s sovereignty. The first who claimed to hold God’s sovereignty in a state as the head of state of Vatican was Pope.

Among Catholics there has been a belief that pope position comes from God, so that Caesars or kings should be throwned by Popes. According to Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) Pope was lower than God but higher than ordinary people. This claim wasn’t immediately accepted since Roman myth also stated that Caesar was the ruler of the world and son of God. Conflicts between these two authorities of God colored political history of Europe; sometimes Pope could control Caesar, sometimes Caesar could play Pope’s political “balls”. King Hendrik IV (Germany) even had the courage to attack Rome, exiling old Pope and appointing new Pope. When Pope Urbanus VI was supported by Germany and UK, France appointed its own Pope located in Avignon. King Henry VIII (UK) had even the courage to separate from Rome by establishing Anglican Church in which King was the head of the church. Pisan Council (1409) made worse the problem by appointing three figures to fill the pope position at the same time. At present, Vatican becomes unique as a state, since its territory is so small in the centre of Rome, the capital of Italy, but its political area is very wide. Its relations with caesars in the globalization are also very unique, benefiting each other.

In history of Islam, God’s sovereignty was also claimed by sultans, mainly repressive sultans. Theology developed was theology of Jabariyyah (predestination) regarding sultans’ existence as a God’s will, so that the notion develop was that sultans were shadows of God on earth (dzillulloh fil ardh). Sultans or kings in Java also adopted similar notions, so that king’s words there were regarded as God’s words, anything they decided couldn’t be cancelled, “sabda pendito ratu”. In Iran after the period of Syah Reza Pahlevi, implementation of God’s sovereignty in politics is arranged more conceptually in what called “wilayat al faqih”, that the highest political power is on the hands of Ayatullah al `Uzma. Democracy may still go on, but everything might be vetoed by Ayatullah al`Uzma as the holder as God’s sovereignty.


God’s sovereignty in Indonesian political party
Political theology a la Shiah is unrealizedly adopted by some Indonesian political parties, especially Islamic parties. The first who adopted this system is NU, both when it is already a mass organization at present and when it was a political party. In NU, the highest power is held by Rais `Am of Syuri`ah. The Rais`Am can veto decisions of all institution below him. Since the Syuriyah institution is perceived as vertically nearer to God’s sovereignty, the decisions are made through istikharah prayers, requesting that God himself chooses the best decision. Certainly, like in pope institution and Iran’s “wilayatul faqih”, effectiveness of this depends on the rais ‘am’s personal charisma. If the tanfidziyah management is smarter and naughtier, the syuriyah’s authority may be shaken. The NU’s pattern is also adopted by PKB. In PKB, chairman of Syuro Board is the holder of the highest political sovereignty. Therefore, Matori Abdul Jalil, Alwi Syihab, and now Muhaimin Iskandar should appropriately place themselves under the shadow of God’s sovereignty now held by the present chairman of Syuro board, Gus Dur; otherwise, they would possibly be “condemned”.

PKS (Welfare and Justice Party) seems to also adopt this system. The party’s highest political sovereignty is held by Syuro Board (Majelis Syuro), so that internal competitions within PKS aren’t intensive, since the spirit developed is sami`na wa atho`na (obedience) to the Syuro Board. PBB (Star Moon Party of Moon Star Party) also adopts this structure, although charisma of its Syuro Board isn’t too sacred. Golkar (Golongan Karya—Functional Group) in the New Order period was actually adopting this system, since its political sovereignty was still held by the chairman of Guiding Board, Soeharto. Therefore, different from it is now, Golkar in Soeharto’s era was highly solid. Democrat Party also adopts Guiding Board institution, but in its statute, the Guiding Board isn’t mentioned to be having authority at the same level as God’s sovereignty. The board authority is limited to only direct struggles, guide, and receive reports. The chairman of the Guiding Board now held by present president SBY is highly effective in maintaining the party’s solidity.